Antisemitic violence is always a reminder of the fragile balance between Jewish life and society. It happens even in the most thriving communities. Jews are experiencing an increasing fear of violence, a feeling almost ingrained in their identity by the memory of the Holocaust. When reviewing antisemitic incidents around the world, it becomes clear that hatred of Jews results in growing violence or concern about Jewish life in Europe. The comparison of current antisemitism in EU member states reveals several peculiarities which are almost paradoxical. I have argued in a previous publication that the number of violent incidents is not necessarily indicative of the intensity of antisemitic sentiments in the country where this happens. Undoubtedly, it is a necessary condition for defining antisemitism, but it is not sufficient.[1]
Perceptions driven by the hatred of the Jews – ie antisemitism – were collected and encapsulated in the ‘Working Definition of Antisemitism’ published in 2004 by the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. Although not legally binding, the definition was meant to provide a practical guide to identifying incidents, collecting data and supporting future antisemitism-related legislation.[2] Few governments have accepted and used the definition, even if only for the purpose of training law enforcement organisations – the United Kingdom deserves to be mentioned as one such country. However, the definition became a core reference for any discussion on antisemitism and the hatred of the Jews.[3] As a result of its adoption by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) in 2016, it has also been embraced by hundreds of civic organisations and governments worldwide.[4]
There are many types of antisemitism that are frequently mentioned today, including traditional antisemitism, secondary antisemitism, etc. This essay does not examine each of them separately. It discusses antisemitism in contemporary Europe as it is experienced by the Jews. When people encounter hate on the street, online, at work, or in social settings, they are uncertain what it means. They should not attempt to categorise it and decide whether or not they fit in. Our basic assumption is that where there is a ‘Jewish problem’, it often indicates that the society has a problem: a deep-seated hatred of the Jews, often disguised as something else.
Concentrating my research on Central Europe, I have chosen to analyse the current situation in three countries – Poland, Hungary and Germany – as well as study the overall policy of the EU towards antisemitism. All three states mentioned above have long-term, ambivalent relationships with their Jewish populations: a flourishing Jewish culture on the one hand, and a history of persecutions and antisemitism on the other hand. One should not forget the events during World War II, when Germany and Hungary were responsible for the extermination of millions of Jews, while Poland became a venue for the tragedy of the Holocaust and, shortly after the war, for deadly pogroms. Continuing antisemitism experienced by the European Jewry provides a context in which we can study this type of conflict in order to shed some light on the contradictory factors influencing perceptions of antisemitism among individuals, organisations and governments.
[1] Haim Fireberg, “The Antisemitic Paradox in Europe: Empirical Evidences and Jewish Perceptions. A Comparative Study Between the West and East”, in: Being Jewish in 21st Century Central Europe; Haim Fireberg, Olaf Glockner and Marcela Zoufala (eds), 2020, Berlin, de Gruyter. pp. 269-279.
[2] The most comprehensive information and discussion on the definition can be foun today at: https://en-humanities.tau.ac.il/sites/humanities_en.tau.ac.il/files/media_server/0001/unedited.pdf . “The Working Definition of Antisemitism – Six Years After” [2010]. The definition itself can be found in the opening pages. The original Definition cannot be found online anymore, because the FRA decided it was not its mandate to deal with definitions. For other views and analyses on the definition, see: https://rm.coe.int/opinion-ecri-on-ihra-wd-on-antisemitism-2755-7610-7522-1/1680a091dd; https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/inline-files/legal%20analysis%20IHRA%20working%20definition%20of%20antisemitism.pdf; https://www.inss.org.il/publication/ihra/.
[3] For comprehensive analysis about the definition and its legal significance, see: Adv. Talia Naamat, The Legal Significance of the Working Definition: Recent Trends and Case Law, (Justice, Spring 2020), pp. 27-31. https://www.ijl.org/justicem/no64/#27/z
[4] For more information about the process and updated situation, see: https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/resources/working-definitions-charters/working-definition-antisemitism
